Just Finished Reading: The Spanish Armada by Robert Hutchinson (FP: 2013) [254pp] 

It was, without doubt, a turning point heralding both the rise of England to global power status and the long slow decline of the Spanish Empire into eventual obscurity. The Great Enterprise of the Spanish Armada was supposed to ring the death knell of Elizabeth’s Protestant England. Not only did it fail in rather spectacular fashion it set in motion a chain of events that would change Europe and the world forever. 

The launch of the Armada in 1588 came as no great surprise to anyone. Not only was Spain an avowed enemy of England after the accension of Elizabeth to the throne in late 1558 but Phillip II (ex-husband of Mary I of England) had publicly vowed to expunge the heretical monarch by fire and invasion if necessary. As the Anglo-Spanish War (1585-1604) dragged on plans were drawn and ships began to cluster in various ports ready to destroy the English navy [I had to constantly correct myself thinking of England’s forces as “British” or thinking of England as either Britain/Great Britain or the UK as such entities had yet to come into existence] and facilitate a full invasion from the Spanish held Netherlands. Such a fleet took an inordinate amount of time to bring together. So long indeed that the early stores brought aboard began in rot in their casks. The fleet itself was a motley collection of newly commissioned ships, barges, older warships and even oar powered/assisted galleons. In all the fleet consisted of 141 ships and took two days just to leave port. Moving at the speed of the slowest ship it progressed towards England at a pace of 4MPH.  

From the ‘off’ things did not go well. Bad weather forced several ships back into port almost immediately and later storms forced several ships to leave for repairs. Finally reaching the English Channel it began to face increasing attacks from English warships which although smaller than many of their Spanish counterparts where much nimbler, better crewed and better armed. The failings of the Armada began to become obvious to all concerned. Barely half of the actual Armada were warships whilst most of the English ships could be described as such. Although the English did have a number of armed merchantmen the majority were very much men-o-war manned by experienced and hardened combat veterans. Retiring to Calais to await the invasion force from the Netherlands, the Spanish fleet were set upon by 8 English fireships causing only slight damage overall but scattering the remainder and beaching several ships. Interestingly, these 8 ships were the only English losses attributed to the fighting.  

Scattered, harried and with contrary winds – to say nothing of the dead and dying from various encounters including the Battle of Gravelines – the Armada pushed into the North Sea with the idea of circumnavigating the British Isles and returning to Spain. This is where things got really bad for the fleet. A mixture of unseasonably stormy weather, lack of charts, death, disease and fast running out supplies meant that the remaining 110 ships suffered greatly on their journey home. Finally, months after they sailed certain of their victory, only 35 ships made it back many containing hundreds of dead and dying. It was a disaster of epic proportions. Spain would never fully recover. 

Naturally the tale of the Spanish Armada is taught with pride (or at least it was in my time) in British schools – despite the fact that most of the damage was done by our notoriously fickle weather. Although its arguable if the Armada could ever have been successful even without the storms it's equally arguable that a successful invasion (if possible) would have ended Elizabeth’s reign reasonably easily. But I think a LOT would have had to have been different for this counter-factual to have much credence. Evidence at the time as well as later evidence from the many wrecks around the coast shows just how unprepared the Spanish had been relying as they did on God and the justice of their cause rather than solid logistics, a well thought out plan and seaworthy ships.  

As an aside, after receiving the rather odd update on my ancestry – that my DNA is apparently 2% Spanish – I paid particular attention to the crews of Spanish ships that washed up on the Irish coast on their way home. It seems that the vast majority either drowned (the idea I understand that it was ‘bad luck’ for a sailor to know how to swim) or were killed on the shoreline (as either invaders or, rather strangely, because of an idea that if you saved someone from the sea then it would be ‘compensated’ by the drowning of a local). Some of the richer survivors did manage to pay their way home (as always) but there is some evidence that a handful of survivors did settle in Ireland in various capacities. It's possible (just) that one of these Spaniards was an ancestor of mine – although I doubt very much if I’m going to find any documentation of a Pedro Gonzales married to Bridget Doyle in 1589.  

Overall, this was a very good examination of why the Armada happened and why it ultimately failed. Even if you have a reasonable familiarity with the events this can still highlight much that you might have missed from your school, movies or casual reading. Definitely worth a read.

Just Finished Reading: The Power of Geography – Ten Maps That Reveal the Future of Our World by Tim Marshall (FP: 2021) [364pp] 

This was, essentially, a continuation of the authors previous work on Geopolitics – Prisoners of Geography. Here he is more forward looking although each section still contains a goodly slice of history for the required context. Starting off with Australia (which I remembered him musing over in the previous book) he looks at that continental country in context with its place in the Japan, South Korea, China axis, especially focused on the ongoing problems in the South China Sea. This does look like a potential conflict zone in the years ahead if cooler heads fail to prevail. I doubt if it would take too much pushing to start an actual shooting war – never mind how stupid and pointless that conflict would be. 

Moving onto the ever ‘interesting’ Middle East zone, we looked at both Iran and Saudi Arabia. I’ve read a little (emphasis on little) about Iran, but this author really helped me understand its geography – especially in a strategic sense – much better than I had previously. I can now understand exactly why Iraq had such a hard time invading during their bloody conflict. The section on Saudi looks very much at its economic future as the US in particular slowly removes its reliance on Mid-East oil and its involvement in Mid-East politics. Although this is a good idea in and of itself (for a whole host of reasons) it doesn’t follow that the tensions in that area will diminish greatly never mind vanish overnight. There are certainly enough other ethnic and religious divisions in the region – to say nothing of Israel’s actions – to keep it in the news for decades to come. 

I’ve been aware of the ‘issues’ between Turkey and Greece for a while now, both from my reading about the region and from watching various conflicts (notably Cyprus) play out on my TV. So, it was a real eye-opener to understand exactly why these two countries – NATO allies indeed – are potentially at each other's throats so much. Not only do they have a LONG history of conflict to draw on, but there’s a whole new cause in play right now: the resources of the eastern Mediterranean. How this will play out... is definitely an open question. 

I’d be the first to admit that my knowledge of Africa is practically non-existent. Apart from some knowledge of Ancient Egypt, the North African campaigns of WW2 and a passing knowledge of the Boer War in South Africa I know almost nothing of that great continent. So, it was good to see two sections in this book dedicated to diminishing that oversight. Looking at conditions throughout the Sahel and Ethiopia I now have a much greater appreciation of the area's problems (often caused by those pesky straight borders again) and what they (and, typically, the Chinese) are doing about it. MUCH more on Africa to come! 

Overall, I enjoyed this a great deal and learnt MUCH. This is a valuable addition to his previous work, and I can definitely recommend it to anyone (like me) who is trying to understand why the world is the way it is. More to come.  

Just Finished Reading: Primitive Rebels by Eric Hobsbawm (FP: 1959) [231pp]

Covering (largely) pre-industrial, or at least pre-proletariat, rumblings of protest in Europe this is an interesting but often dry academic look at groups who used protest and violence to resist their ‘masters’. The use of ‘primitive’ here is used politically to denote a time before widespread identification with the idea of a Working Class or, in some cases, before the Working Class itself came into existence. The author focuses on rural rather than urban rebels – with one minor exception in Italy – who were more often coalesced around a village identity rather than a class one.

Ranging from social banditry, Mafia (not exactly what you would expect from movies about the 1920’s and 30’s in the US!), Anarchists in Spanish Andalusia, and Italian peasant communists – before moving onto urban mobs – the author covers a lot of unfamiliar (at least to me!) ground to show an often ignored or understudied part of Europe’s rural past. It was, at you might imagine, far from the idyllic pastoral myth that we are so used to.

Although this was a very short work it did take me a few days to work through it. It was, as I’ve mentioned, both rather dry and unfamiliar which didn’t help the narrative flow very well or very fast. Interesting at times but one for the more academically inclined rather than the casual reader.

Just Finished Reading: The Moor’s Last Stand – How Seven Centuries of Muslim Rule in Spain Came to an End by Elizabeth Drayson (FP: 2017)

Being born in the End Times is unfortunate. Being born into a position of power and authority in the End Times is nothing short of a curse. After 700 years of Islamic rule is Spain Abu Abdallah Muhammad XI, known as Boabdil became what was to be the last King of the southern Spanish province of Granada. Still in his 20’s he quickly realised that the weight of the Muslim world had landed on his shoulders. Pressed in on all sides by the Catholic forces of Ferdinand and Isabella Boabdil had little room for manoeuvre, few friends on mainland Spain and even fewer in North Africa. Faced with such a disadvantageous position and with so much at stake – the end of his civilisation – he would have hoped and expected to have unwavering support from his people, his ministers and his family. Nothing could be further from reality. The people were divided by faction, clan, family and religious affiliation. Some wanted to fight for every inch of ground with every breath in their bodies. Others hoped against hope that the Christians could see how valuable they were if left to their own devices. Others plotted the King’s overthrow and too Christian gold to help themselves to power. His Ministers plotted and schemed calling for Holy War or secret negotiation. His family, as with many such dynasties, was riven by jealousy, greed and the lust for power. Outside Grenada the Catholic forces spoke with almost a single voice and had just one objective – the ‘Reconquista’ of Spain and the ultimate expulsion of all Islamic influence in that long divided land. As the end of the 15th century approached a decades long struggle was about to come to a final and apocalyptic end in an event that reverberated down the centuries and still has an impact today – the fall of the last bastion of Muslim rule: Granada.

This is another one of those subjects that I knew a little bit about – that it happened along with a few names and some rough idea of dates. Partially through a general historical knowledge of Europe and, honestly, partially through historical drama like the movie El Cid. One of the interesting aspects of reading this book is that I visited Grenada and other areas on Andalucía over a decade ago with my then girlfriend. I was captivated both by the exotic mix of Islamic and Spanish architecture and the breath-taking beauty of the surroundings. When the Moors finally left Grenada I could certainly sympathise with their loss. If I had lived there for any time – never mind 700 years – I too would have been heartbroken to leave. One thing I hadn’t realised, which should have been obvious if I’d given it much thought, was that the re-conquest was nothing of the sort. It was an invasion of Muslim Spain by Catholic Spain. It’s a bit like England, after losing its final foothold in France with the loss of Calais in 1558, attacking France tomorrow and calling it a re-conquest taking back what was rightfully always ours. In some weird technical way it might be true but to make it seem legitimate would take a great deal of political spin – just like the re-conquest of Spain by northern Catholic forces. The final interesting aspect of this profound change in the history of Europe was how the image of Boabdil changed after the fall of Grenada in 1492. From coward and deeply ineffectual war leader to iconic hero both inside some parts of Spain and throughout the Islamic world. Over time the man has gone from historical figure, to myth to icon. Yet it is unclear how he died or where he is buried. It’s an interesting tale and one very much worth reading for anyone interested in Christian/Muslim relations and the history of the region. Recommended.   

Just Finished Reading: Homage to Catalonia by George Orwell (FP: 1938)

In late 1936, along with many other men of his generation, Eric Blair travelled to war torn Spain to do something about the Fascist tide sweeping across Europe. Largely ignorant of war but full of naïve hope the book was a record of his experiences during the country’s Civil War. Staying for about a year – before being severally wounded – he spent most of his time at the front lines trying to keep warm and find food. Mostly he looked across at the enemy lines and wondered if anything was going to happen that day or the day after. Blair – who is rather better known under his literary name of George Orwell – felt that he was largely wasting his time although he tried his best to train the soldiers under him how to keep their rather obsolete rifles clean and the rudiments of military practise. Back in Barcelona he became tangentially involved in the sudden in-fighting between various left-wing factions in the city. Having fought with the Anarchists and their Socialist allies this became his natural home in the street fighting that followed. This, on top of everything else he had already experienced in Spain, turned him forever against the Communists directed from Moscow. After their duplicity in Spain he had no trouble understanding their later non-aggression pact with Hitler that caused so much anguish amongst Communists throughout the West. Not for Blair/Orwell the need to leave the Party or the forced mental contortions of those who stayed behind and who had to justify this unexpected volte-face. He had seen the Soviets for what they were at first hand and had – just – lived to tell the tale.

This, the political side of Orwell’s experiences in Spain (partially relegated to a few annexes in my edition), was the part that most fascinated me. I knew of some of the in-fighting that emasculated if not destroyed the Left’s ability to beat their more unified opponents on the Right but it was stimulating to get if from someone who had actually experienced it himself. It was clear from Orwell’s account that political ideology from the Communist side always trumped military or any other kind of logic. Hundreds of loyal Spanish fighters who were totally dedicated to fighting against Fascism where arrested and, some at least, executed because they would not bend to the Soviet way of doing things. Again, luckily for Orwell, he saw the way the wind was blowing and managed to get out of Spain before he was arrested.

Although I knew that Orwell had been injured in Spain I hadn’t appreciated just how serious the injury was and just how lucky he was to survive. Shot in the throat he was not expected to survive the trip to hospital. The bullet apparently missed a major artery in his neck by millimetres. A small distance in one direction and his writing career would have ended with a handful of books to his name and, possibly, a footnote in English literary history. Imagine, for a moment, a world culture without Animal Farm or 1984. A fraction of an inch separates the two worlds!

Whilst not exactly gripping or a great page turner this is worth the time and effort to read – especially if you’ve read 1984 and ever wondered where some of the ideas came from. It’s also worth the read to see war, and a rather chaotic civil war at that, from the ground by someone who was there. I am definitely coming to see contemporary first-hand accounts of historic events as a valuable means of getting to the heart of the action. An interesting and probably significant work.    

Just Finished Reading: The Conquistadors – A Very Short Introduction by Matthew Restall and Flipe Fernandez-Armesto (FP: 2012)

From the late 15th century and for over a hundred years afterwards a group of largely Spanish adventurers invaded, mapped and removed untold wealth from Central South America. These where the fabled Conquistadors spoken of in admiring terms at the time and with either pride or horrified disgust ever since. The myths surrounding them, and many myths there are, where largely created by the men themselves, not only in an attempt at self-aggrandisement (though there was certainly enough of that to go around) but in an attempt to impress their royal sponsors back home who had it within their power to grant titles, land grants and payment for services rendered. Big stories and dramatic adventures sold books, made reputations and by extension made people rich and powerful.

The reality was of course somewhat more grubby and down to earth. Most of the Conquistadors where uneducated, unsophisticated and uninterested in anything as prosaic as glory. They wanted, more than anything else, to amass a suitably large fortune and then retire to a farm back in Europe. Few managed this and most died on the voyage out, due to disease on arrival or in the constant warfare they engaged in in South America against local tribes and each other. A few, a very few, achieved fame and a smaller number achieved both fame and fortune but these where very much the exception – so much so that the generally known individuals could probably be counted on the fingers of one hand. Amongst the lessor known, rather surprisingly, where a few Conquistadora’s – female Conquistadors who managed to hide their gender (not easy in that environment I should think) until uncovered and sent back to Spain as almost other-worldly celebrities. The very existence of such creatures surprised me a great deal. I wonder how many other women throughout history had done this sort of thing. How many women fought in early wars or explored the furthest reaches of the world disguised as men? I’m sure that there’s a PhD or at least a book buried somewhere in that question.    

The authors certainly weave a good tale as they unravel the truth hidden in the myths and self-publication of the age of conquest. The tale they put forward is frankly fascinating and it’s no surprise that this event or series of events continues to attract the imagination of authors and film makers and continues to hold the interest of the reading and watching public. Definitely recommended.

Just Finished Reading: The Spanish Civil War by Antony Beevor

Back in the days of my youth I used to read Military History almost exclusively – concentrating on WW2. Doing so, I knew about the Spanish Civil War but only in the most general sense. I knew that both Germany and Russia had troops and some of their best weapons ‘in theatre’ to try them out in battlefield situations but I wasn’t aware that the Italians also had substantial forces involved too.

What I really learnt from this very well written book was the sheer horror of the war fought in Spain as well as the sheer incompetence and waste of life exhibited on both sides. After decades of slow but steady decline Spain had virtually fossilised by the beginning of the 1930’s. Being both an autocratic and theocratic state it did not tolerate dissent easily so when the Left came close to winning an election and the resultant government started timidly to bring in limited land reform the forces of the Right staged a coup – which failed. Unfortunately for the population the coup did not fail completely and the country quickly divided along political lines. Because of the weak positions of both Left and Right the violence against opposition groups in areas held by both factions was severe and brutal. Thousands of people were simply lined up and executed for having voted for the opposition. If possible the war actually made things worse. Most of the Army officers had joined the Nationalist side – led by General Franco whilst the larger Republican Army had to use militia’s from the Socialists, Communists and Anarchists. Although full of political fervour, these poorly trained and poorly armed workers died through their own inexperience and the incompetence of their officers. Luckily for the Left – at least initially - the Nationalists spent almost as much energy in political in-fighting as on the battlefield. But the writing was on the wall from very early on. The Left had a mountain to climb if it was to defeat the Nationalists. Not only where the Left badly armed but it seemed that most of the world – from Europe to the USA – did everything in their power to make sure that they failed.

Enter the International Brigades (made famous by George Orwell amongst others). These rag-tag collections of left-wing intellectuals and workers from all over the world flocked to the Republican cause and stayed in Spain until the bitter end despite their often awful treatment by their frequently Communist leadership. Although told as dispassionately as possible, Beevor’s ire at several groups involved in the conflict shines through his prose. He clearly shows the brutality of Franco and his Nationalists. He confirms time and again the ideological stupidity and viciousness of the Soviet led Communist forces who were, as often as not, their own worst enemies. He vilifies the actions and the rhetoric of the Catholic priests both inside Spain, the United States and the Vatican - and relates one speech where a priest offers the killers of any Communist one less year in purgatory for each one killed. His sympathies are, it appeared, with the Left but it would be too simplistic to leave it at that. His deepest sympathies, though this may be influenced by my own beliefs, are with the peasants and especially the Anarchists who were very badly treated by all sides.

All civil wars are recognised as being particularly nasty. In a very real sense it would seem that they were talking about the Spanish Civil War. I am not easily shocked or dismayed but parts of this book almost brought me to tears. Man’s inhumanity to his fellow men confounds me. Here amidst the examples of heroism and simple bloody-minded survival are countless examples of breathtaking and almost casual brutality on an industrial scale. It beggars belief what people did to each other in Spain in the years between 1936 and 1939. Few came away from that nasty little war with clean hands. If anything says that our species does not deserve to survive it is events like this. Knowing that we are capable of atrocities undertaken in the name of political ideology makes me despair that there is any hope for us. Read this book and weep for humanity and hope that the likes of this bloody conflict never happens again.